:: Back To Index ::
Advanced Organizers. Retrieved Sept. 12, 2004 from http://www.kihd.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/strategies/cognitivism/AdvancedOrganizers.htm.
This concise article summarizes the advanced organizers theory, proposed by D. Ausubel. It provides a little information, but it is not an extensive analysis. This article is good to grasp the main idea of the theory.
:: Back To Top ::
Andreessen, Marc and Bina, Eric "Web History-Mosaic" The Living Internet. Online. Internet 13 Apr. 1993. Available http://livinginternet.com/w/wi_mosaic.htm.
On April 13, 1993, Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina, young programmers working for the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, invent a point-and-click graphical browser for the Web, designed to run on UNIX machines. It is called Mosaic. Andreessen and his co-workers later release free versions of Mosaic for Macintosh and Windows PCs.
:: Back To Top ::
Aufderheide, Patricia (September 1992). Media Education in the 1990s. Vol. 20, no. 2 Retrieved October 2, 2004, from http://www2.rpa.net/~vsw/afterimage/aufderhe.htm.
In this article, Patricia Aufderheide addresses "Media literacy". In her article she addresses these questions: "Media literacy for what?" "Why do students need to be media literate?" This article goes on about the theory and the practice of media literacy.
:: Back To Top ::
Brooks, J.G. (2004). To See Beyond the Lesson. Educational Leadership, Vol. 62 (1), 8-12.
In this article, Brooks, an associate professor from the Department of Curriculum and Teaching at Hofstra University, analyzes the new trend in education called "teaching for meaning," where teachers facilitate student-centered learning, instead of teacher-centered learning. However, she also points out the unwillingness of educational organizations and government agencies to adopt this type of viewpoint. Brooks uses many theories to support her view of this trend including R.J. Spiro's cognitive flexibility theory, and makes a plea with educators to continue to adopt this type of approach toward their students in order to help them prepare for the outside world after they leave school. Overall, Brooks believes that teachers need to make learning "complex" and not rush the learning process in order to give instruction "meaning" and "purpose." Although, the article does appear one-sided since it mainly focuses on student-centered learning, it does help its audience, mainly teachers, gain a broader understanding of this new approach.
:: Back To Top ::
Bryk, A.S., Raudenbush S. (1986) A Hierarchical Model for Studying School Effects. Sociology of Education, Vol 59 No. 1, 1-17
Bryk from the University of Chicago, and Raudenbush from Michigan State University criticize the traditional linear models used in analyzing data in educational studies. They state that these models do not take into account the diverse factors that influence the data being gathered, such as the socioeconomic status of the students, instead focusing on statistics and test scores. They state that these models lead researchers to "false conclusions." Such models include Cronbach and Webb's aptitude-by-treatment interaction method and Barr and Dreeben's approach to gathering data in educational research. Instead, Bryk and Raudenbush suggest that educational research should be approached by models that take into account "variations in structural relations across schools," including the viewpoint of "regression slopes as outcomes" as suggested by Burstein and Miller (Bryk, 1986, p. 2-3) or a hierarchical linear model (HLM) as explained by Lindley and Smith, to analyze data. Bryk and Raudenbush admit that HLM is a lot more difficult to use than traditional linear models when interpreting data. Yet, they state that using these multi-level models would allow researchers to interpret data more accurately.
:: Back To Top ::
Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne). Retrieved Sept.12, 2004 from the Theory Into Practice (TIP) database: http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html.
This page is found in the Theory Into Practice (TIP) database website. This database consists of theories and theorists. This database consists of theories and theorists. The theory page for Conditions of Learning has two links to the work of Robert Gagne and his background. Dr. Robert Gagne was born in 1916 in North Andover, MA. He obtained his A.B. at Yale in 1937 and in 1940 his Ph.D. in Psychology from Brown University. He taught at Connecticut College for Women from 1940-49 and then at Penn State University from 1945-1946. Between 1949-1958, Gagne was director of the perceptual and motor skills laborartory of the U.S. Air force. It was at this time that he began to develop some of his ideas that comprise his learning theory called the "Conditions of Learning". This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.
:: Back To Top ::
Cooper, Sunny. Miller, George A. Retrieved Sept. 12, 2004 from http://www.konnections.net/lifecircles/millerIP.htm.
This information, by Sunny Cooper, MS, is a part of the Learning Theories Web. It discusses Miller's book as well as his two theoretical ideas. Cooper goes into detail about George Miller and really helps the reader understand the main concepts of the Information Processing Theory (IP).
:: Back To Top ::
Criterion Referenced Instruction (R. Mager). Retrieved Sept. 12, 2004 from http://www.business.com/bdcframe.asp.
This short article discusses the Criterion Referenced Instruction (CRI) framework developed by Robert Mager. It gives an insightful overview of the theory as well as the theorist. It also discusses the top five principles, which shows what the theory is really all about.
:: Back To Top ::
Dias, Paulo & Sousa, Paula. "Understanding Navigation and Disorientation in Hypermedia Learning Environments." Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia Vol.6 No.2 (1997) 173-185.
In 1992, Stanton, Taylor, & Tweedie conducted a study to determine if maps were an effective navigation aide for browsing in a nonhierarchical hypermedia domain. They used two groups of subjects: one with access to the map and another without access to the map. The results showed that tasks performance was poorer in the presence of the map than in a "no-map" condition.
:: Back To Top ::
English, R.E., & Reigeluth, C.M. (1995). Formative research on sequencing instruction with the elaboration theory. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/23/69/b7.pdf.
Dr. Robert E. English is a Professor and Assistant Dean in the College of Technology at Indiana State University and Dr. Charles M. Reigeluth is a Professor in the College of Education at Indiana University. Both authors have conducted and published many articles relating to instructional system designs. In this research paper, the authors conducted a formative research on the Elaboration Theory to identify any weaknesses in the theory and ways to overcome those weaknesses. The Elaboration Theory is a theory that suggests that instruction should be sequenced in an organized fashion from simple to complex concepts and ideas. They find their research-produced results that validated that instruction should be sequenced in a manner that progresses from simple to complex concepts and ideas. In addition, the authors comment that sequencing is a powerful tool and motivating factor that helps students understand difficult theories and procedures. Finally the authors discuss recommendations to the theory from the qualitative data collected.
:: Back To Top ::
Frymoyer, Edward M. (2004). John Carroll. Retrived September 24, from Penn State University, School of Information Sciences and Technology: http://ist.psu.edu/Research/FacultyResearch2.cfm?EmployeeID=234#Bio.
Dr. John Carroll is the founder of human-computer interaction as well as the creator of the minimalist approach to learning. This web page provided by Penn State University contains a biography including his education and research contributions. Also found on the site are short summaries of the books that he has written particularly The Nurnberg Funnel: Designing Minimalist Instruction for Practical Computer Skill, his book on minamalist theory to learning. This page provides useful information as well as a starting point for further research on his theories.
:: Back To Top ::
Haigh, R.W. (1985). Planning for Computer Literacy. The Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 56 No. 2, 161-171
Taken from a 1980s perspective, when most homes did not own a PC, Haigh delves into the definition of computer literacy and how it was being used in the academic community. According to Haigh, director of planning and management information systems at West Virginia Northern Community College, most college students who used a computer were often required to learn programming as well, at that time. However, Haigh suggests that software of the 1980s was so user-friendly that students no longer needed to learn programming in order to use computer software. He also states that computer literacy within the academic community is more about the language computers use, not the "science" of computers. One of the computer languages mentioned within this definition is LOGO, which was developed by Seymour Papert. Overall, Haigh states that colleges and other academic institutions need to address the issue of computer literacy within their academic programs and whether or not programming should be a part of that definition. Although, Haigh writes from the perspective of a 1980s educator, readers of this text will learn a lot about how the view of computer technology has changed within the past twenty years, and how it is now an inclusive field rather than an exclusive field within the academic community.
:: Back To Top ::
Hsin-Yih, Cindy. (2000). Using video-based anchored instruction to enhance learning: Taiwan's experience. British Journal of Educational Technology. 31, 57.
In this study, Cindy Hsin-Yih tests the effects of anchored instruction on the cognitive and affective domains in mathematics for elementary students in Taiwan. Anchored instruction was developed by the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University. Hsin-Yih focuses on how knowledge is influenced by activity, context, and culture, in order to display the effectiveness of anchored instruction.
:: Back To Top ::
Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved October 10, 2004, From http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html.
This web page focuses primarily on memory. The most widely accepted theory by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968) called the "stage theory" is on how information is stored in memory. The author describes the "levels-of-processing" theory as one of the three widely accepted. The first is the work of Craik and Lockhart (1972) and is labeled the "levels-of-processing" theory. This theory supports the finding that we remember things that are meaningful to us because this requires more processing than meaningless stimuli. The author states "this is done on a continuum from perception, through attention, to labeling, and finally, meaning."
:: Back To Top ::
Keller, John M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of motivational design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10 (3), 2-10.
Dr. John Keller is from Florida State University and a program leader in instructional systems. His interest is to find more effective ways of understanding the major influence on motivation to learn, and for systematic ways of identifying and solving problems with learning motivation. By doing this, he added to his ideas and theory of motivation and instructional design. Two teacher in-service education training programs were involved in testing this model. This is relevant for teachers and instructional designers creating instruction. A full understanding and comprehension of the model is needed in order to be used to improve teacher instruction. There are many different concepts and strategies present in the model. The strategies to identify and solve problems with learning and motivation are explained.
:: Back To Top ::
Keller Plan, or Personalized System of Instruction. Retrieved Sept. 12, 2004 from http://www.ittheory.com/indiv1.htm.
This portion of a timeline/overview is from the Instructional Technology Global Resource Network. It briefly describes the Keller Plan and gives a short summary of helpful information.
:: Back To Top ::
Klein, N. A. & Sondag, K. A. (1994). Understanding volunteer peer health educators' motivations: Applying social learning theory [Electronic version]. Journal of American College Health, 43(3), 126-130.
Dr. Albert Bandura is a professor at Stanford University and has done extensive research in social learning throughout his career. His theory, Social Learning Theory, has been used as a model in many research papers. In this article, the authors apply the social learning theory to explain the motivation factors of volunteer peer health educators. The article reports that people are likely to volunteer because of modeling other people's actions as described in the Social Learning Theory. The researchers of this article used qualitative measurement tools to gather their data. Their research only sampled nineteen college students who enrolled in a for-credit peer health education class.
:: Back To Top ::
Lateral Thinking (DeBono). Retrieved Sept. 12, 2004 from the Theory Into Practice (TIP) database: http://tip.psychology.org/debono.html.
This page is found in the Theory Into Practice (TIP) database website. This database consists of theories and theorists. The theory page for Lateral Thinking has an additional link to Dr. De Bono's personal website. Edward de Bono is regarded by many as the leading authority in the field of creative thinking, innovation and the direct teaching of thinking as a skill. Edward de Bono has written extensively about the process of lateral thinking -- the generation of novel solutions to problems. The point of lateral thinking is that many problems require a different perspective to solve successfully. De Bono identifies four critical factors associated with lateral thinking: (1) recognize dominant ideas that polarize perception of a problem, (2) searching for different ways of looking at things, (3) relaxation of rigid control of thinking, and (4) use of chance to encourage other ideas. This last factor has to do with the fact that lateral thinking involves low-probability ideas, which are unlikely to occur in the normal course of events.
:: Back To Top ::
Liu, Min, (2003). Enhancing Learners' Cognitive Skills through Multimedia Design. Interactive Learning Environments, Vol. 11 No. 1, 23-39.
Min Liu works in the department of curriculum and instruction at the University of Texas.She is a Ph.D. student and has a master's degree in journalism. Min Liu examines and explains how to design interactive multimedia learning environments to provide necessary support for developing higher level cognitive skills. The focus is on elementary, middle, and high school students. This paper would interest people interested in having students engaged in multimedia design present in the classroom or work area, to anyone doing research on this topic. The paper relates to our topic by having technology integrated into learning, focusing on all levels of cognitive skills, and involving students to hands-on-learning using various multimedia in the classroom.
:: Back To Top ::
Mager, Robert. Criterion Referenced Instruction. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2004, from The Theory Into Practice (TIP) database: http://tip.psychology.org/mager.html.
This page is found in the Theory Into Practice (TIP) database website. This database consists of theories and theorists. The theory page for Criterion-Referenced Instruction has two links to the work of Mager and his background. Dr. Robert F. Mager holds a doctorate in psychology and a world-renowned expert on training and human performance improvement issues. He is credited with revolutionizing the performance improvement industry with his groundbreaking work. His most significant contributions are his work on the Criterion-Referenced Instruction (CRI) training methodology. His development of CRI is used to develop training has become the standard for excellence in training and performance improvement. Dr. Mager has authored or co-authored three train-the-trainer workshops to teach this methodology. These are self-paced courses using workbooks, videotapes, small group discussions, and computer-based instruction to help students determine how much they have learned. He is also a well-known author and is best known for writing the largest-selling book ever Preparing Instructional Objectives. According to the Center for Effective Performance, Inc "it is recognized as the standard work in its field and is the basis for many graduate level instructional design courses." Dr. Mager also has numerous awards and honors that can be viewed at: http://www.cepworldwide.com/discover/about_mager.html.
:: Back To Top ::
Monti, Cicchetti, Goodkind, & Ganci founded Structured Presentation Technology Methodology (SPT) in 1994.
SPT involves the use of technology in any group-learning situation as a means of delivering information and providing the group an opportunity to interact with that information. Also aims to restore consistency to lecture-content delivery and also allow wide-ranging access to information based on learners' needs and interest.
:: Back To Top ::
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Dr. Allan Paivio is in the Psychology Department at the University of Western Ontario. Paivio's experiments involved asking participants to compare pairs of items to determine which one was rounder. The objects were presented as words, pictures, or word-picture pairs. The response times were slowest for word-word pairs, intermediate for the picture-word pairs, and fastest for the picture-picture pairs. Paivio's belief is that human cognition is "unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events". Dual Coding Theory identified three types of processing: representation, referential, and associative processing. The idea is that recall and recognition is enhanced when information is presented in both visual and verbal forms. This "dual" presentation provides better learning by students.
:: Back To Top ::
Pask, Gordon. (1996). Heinz von Foerster's self-organisation, the progenitor of conversation and interaction theories. Retrieved on October 10, 2004, from http://www.cybsoc.org/gordon.htm.
Dr. Gordon Pask was born Andrew Gordon Speedie Pask. He is the founding father of cybernetics and systems science. His primary interest was on the personal nature of reality and on the process of learning as stemming from the consensual agreement of interacting actors in a given environment. Gordon Pask's Conversation Theory is a theory that explains that learning occurs through conversations about a subject matter, which serve to make knowledge explicit. One of the main points of the Conversation Theory employs the "teachback" method, which allows a person to teach another person what they have learned. In this research paper, Dr. Pask talks about how conversations are events, which have a beginning and an end and may be divided into kinematic portions, in contrast to interaction of actors which cannot. Further more, Dr. Pask states that the main purpose of the conversation is about getting to know the viewpoint of two people conversing, not necessarily focusing on what the topic is.
:: Back To Top ::
Posner, M.I., (2003). Neural systems and individual differences: A commentary on frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. American Educational Research Association.
Michael Posner wrote based on Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences. He is from the University of Oregon, and prepared this paper for an annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association in Chicago, IL in April 2003. Posner focused on attention although it was not one of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences, due to major developments made after Gardner's, "Frames of Mind" publication. He proposed that research on attention may be important for education, and focusing on attention and working on training it will be an important role in early childhood education. His intended audience are educators or anyone that works with children. Information on Multiple Intelligences are important to people because curriculum and understanding the way students think and learn are important for all those involved with children.
:: Back To Top ::
Reigeluth, C. & Stein, F. (1983). The elaboration theory of instruction. In C. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional Design Theories and Models. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Mr. Reigeluth has a Ph.D. in Instructional Psychology from BYU and is currently a Professor at Indiana University. Reigeluth's book includes examples of how to teach an Introductory Economics course using the Elaboration Theory method. Charles Reigeluth was one of the first theorists to develop the Elaboration Theory. This theory is designed as a way to instruct students by giving an overview and teaching the basics of the concept first. Once students master the basics, then you can "elaborate" or go more in-depth into a subject as they have a context to link it to. This relates well to educating students using technology. When you start teaching technology, start with the basics of the application, and then go in-depth after the students have mastered the basics. For teachers, this theory will help them to better provide instruction to students.
:: Back To Top ::
Roblyer, M.D. (2003). Integrating Technology Into Teaching. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill/Prentice Hall. pg. 57.
M.D. Roblyer has been a strong contributor to the field of educational technology for nearly thirty years. She has written extensively and researched thoroughly. This book is focused on integrating technology into teaching. It has some history, but mostly strategies and techniques for teachers. There is an article on Skinner and his learning theories. It is succinct but has helpful information on the background of Skinner.
:: Back To Top ::
Structure of Intellect (J.P. Guilford). Retrieved Sept. 12, 2004 from the Theory Into Practice (TIP) database: http://tip.psychology.org/guilford.html.
This page is found in the Theory Into Practice (TIP) database website. This database consists of theories and theorists. The theory page for Structure of Intellect has 3 additional links to the work of Dr. Guilford as well as his background. Guilford researched and developed a wide variety of psychometric tests to measure the specific abilities predicted by SI theory. These tests provide an operational definition of the many abilities proposed by the theory. Furthermore, factor analysis was used to determine which tests appeared to measure the same or different abilities. SI theory is intended to be a general theory of human intelligence. Its major application (besides educational research) has been in personnel selection and placement.
:: Back To Top ::
Symbol Systems (G. Salomon). (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2004 from http://tip.psychology.org/salomon.html.
Dr. Gavriel Salomon is a professor of Educational Psychology at the University of Haifa in Israel. He earned his Ph.D. from Stanford University. According to this article, the Symbol Systems Theory explains how media affects learning. In addition the Symbol Systems Theory suggests that "the effectiveness of a medium depends upon its match with the learner, the context and the task." Therefore, "for an effective instructional communication, a match needs to be established between the cognitive demands of a learning task, the skills that are required by the codes of the message, and the learner's level of mastery of these skills." The Symbol Systems Theory is supported by research that Salomon conducted with the Sesame Street television series. This theory shows how important symbols can help people understand concepts in an efficient and effective manner.
:: Back To Top ::
Smith, M.K. (2002) 'Jerome S. Bruner and the process of education', the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm.
According to the encyclopedia of informational education Jerome Bruner was a professor of Harvard University and Oxford University. He later returned to Harvard and joined the faculty of the new School for Social Research in New York City. Bruner's Constructivist Theory suggested a person may not perceive an object until he or she has recognized it. The Constructivist Theory is where learning takes place based on past or prior knowledge and is based on three principles: Instruction must be structured and organized (spiral organization), the student must be ready and willing to learn (readiness), instruction must go beyond or fill in the gaps. An overview, principles and examples of his Constructivist Theory is also at http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html.
:: Back To Top ::
Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel). Retrieved Sept.12, 2004 from http://tip.psychology.org/ausubel.html.
From the "Theory Into Practice" (TIP) Website, which discusses several different theorists, the Subsumption Theory description discusses Ausubel's theory in detail. It gives a great overview, followed by a helpful example. The TIP Website is very accommodating when looking for information on a particular theory or theorist in the area of learning.
:: Back To Top ::
Sweller, J., Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning, Cognitive Science, 12, 257-285 (1988).
Dr. John Sweller is a Professor of Education at the University of New South Wales. Evidence for these contentions was obtained using secondary and tertiary mathematics and science students and industrial apprentices. About 200 experiments using a variety of curriculum materials relevant to the above students were run. Sweller starts with George Miller's research on short term memory, and he thinks about long-term memory as "sophisticated structures that permit us to perceive, think and solve problems". Until these "schemas" are formed in long-term memory, the use of the knowledge will be slow and error-prone. For instructional designers, teaching information should be designed in a way to reduce the working memory load so that the information can be more easily assimilated into long-term memory.
:: Back To Top ::
Trentin, Guglielmo. "Computerized Adaptive Tests and Formative Assessment." Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia Vol.6 No.2 (1997) 201-220.
Trentin, Brunetti, Rappa, & Sberna in 1992 researched The HyperDelfi Development. This system is designed to support the development of adaptive tests in a hypertext environment. The hierarchal node (topic) is assigned a suitable amount of questions: each set of questions is structured in a way that a correct answer guarantees that all subordinate nodes have been "covered" (i.e., mastered), while an incorrect answer causes the student to be directed toward presumed areas of incompetence.
:: Back To Top ::
Vygotsky, Lev. Social Development Theory (n.d.) Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html.
This page is found in the Theory Into Practice (TIP) database website. This database consists of theories and theorists. This web page lists three links to other information on Lev Vygotsky. Lev Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896 that received a law degree from the Moscow University. He later studied literature and linguistics and got his Ph.D. He was a Russian Psychologist and his Social Development Theory is also known as social constructivism. He states "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level between people (interpsychological) and on the individual level inside the child (intrapsychological)" His theory is based on two principles 1) Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age and 2) Full cognitive development requires social interaction. Further background information is also provided at the following: http://www.kolar.org/vygotsky, http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky, http://mathforum.org/mathed/vygotsky.html.
:: Back To Top ::
Whalen, Samuel P. (1999). Finding flow at school and at home: A conversation with Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education. 10, 161.
In this interview Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, the creator of flow theory discusses some of the important topics regarding flow within the lives of children both in school and at home. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi talks about some of the factors that affect a child's flow in creativity and talent. The article gives a good feel in how people establish flow within their daily lives.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, May 25). Moore's Law. Retrieved September 29, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moores_Law.
This observation was made in 1965 by Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel. He stated that the number of transistors per square inch on integrated circuits had doubled every year since the integrated circuit was invented. Moore predicted that this trend would continue for the future. However, in following years, the pace slowed down a bit, but data density has doubled approximately every 18 months, and this is the current definition of Moore's Law. Most experts, including Moore himself, expect Moore's Law to hold for at least another two decades.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, September 2). Palm Pilot. Retrieved September 29, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PalmPilot.
The Palm Pilot was the first successful interconnected organizer. It was the third project created by Jeff Hawkins who revolutionized the mobile industry. Founder of Palm Computing and Handspring, he was born in Long Island, New York. He attended Cornell University, BSEE; UC Berkeley, BioPhysics study. Currently he has turned his attention to Neuroscience.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, October 7). Pentium. Retrieved October 8, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium.
A microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1993. Since 1993, the Pentium processor has gone onto the Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III and currently the Pentium 4 microprocessors. It is virtually the leading microprocessor in any business, school, and household computer.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, September 27). Quantum cryptography. Retrieved September 29, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cryptography.
This sort of communications works by the fact that once quantum data is intercepted it cannot be retransmitted 100 percent accurately. In 1989 Bennet, Brassard and colleagues transmitted a secret key over 30 cm, then BT transmitted 60,000 bits of information in one second over a distance of 10 kilometres, and finally communication was achieved under lake Geneva over 23 kilometres showing that this sort of communication is not off in the distant future but can be achieved now.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, October 2). Tim Berners-Lee. Retrieved October 4, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee.
Tim Berners-Lee built the first web site ever built and first put online on August 6, 1991. It provided an explanation about what the World Wide Web was, how one could own a browser, how to set up a web server, and so on. It was also the world's first web directory. One of the most notable things was that the World Wide Web was ideally free.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, July 14). Windows. Retrieved September 29, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows.
Microsoft Windows is a family of operating systems for personal computers. Windows dominates the personal computer world, running, by estimates of 90% of all personal computers. Windows provides a graphical user interface (GUI), virtual memory management, multitasking, and support for many peripheral devices.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, October 4). Adobe Photoshop. Retrieved October 11, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoshop.
Adobe Photoshop is a leading paint program from Adobe Systems. Initially, it only ran on the Macintosh systems, which made it a strong selling point for Mac-users and graphic artist. Currently, Adobe Photoshop runs on both Macs and Windows PCs.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, October 11). Java. Retrieved October 11, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_language.
Java is an object-oriented language. Compiled Java code can run on most computers because Java interpreters and runtime environments, known as Java Virtual Machines, this includes operating systems such as UNIX, Macintosh, and Windows. Java is a general purpose programming language with a number of features that make the language well suited for use on the World Wide Web. Small Java applications are called Java applets and can be downloaded from a Web server and run on your computer by a Java-compatible Web browser, such as Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Internet Explorer.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, October 8). Linux. Retrieved October 11, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux.
Linux is a freely-distributable open source operating system that runs on a number of hardware platforms. Linux was developed mainly by Linus Torvalds. It's main drawing point is that it's free, and because it runs on many platforms, including PCs and Macintoshes, Linux has become an extremely popular alternative to proprietary operating systems.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, October 4). Macromedia Flash. Retrieved October 11, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromedia_Flash.
Flash is a vector-graphic animation technology that is bandwidth friendly and browser independent. However these browsers must be equipped with the necessary plug-ins. With Flash, users can draw their own animations or import other vector-based images. Flash was created and developed by Macromedia Inc.
:: Back To Top ::
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2004, October 10). MP3. Retrieved October 11, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3.
MP3 is the name of the file extension and also the name of the type of file for MPEG, audio layer 3. Layer 3 uses perceptual audio coding and compression to remove irrelevant information within the file. The result in real terms is layer 3 shrinks the original sound data from a CD without sacrificing sound quality. Because MP3 files are small, they can easily be transferred across the Internet.
:: Back To Top ::